Electron axle processing of fresh and/or frozen raw ground beef

H.East. Clemmons , ... E.J. Dark-brown , in Electron Beam Pasteurization and Complementary Food Processing Technologies, 2015

14.five Product feasibility testing

Basis beef may be electron beam irradiated in diverse product and packaging configurations. The configurations must adhere to the dimensional requirements that allow proper and compatible dose delivery. The precise dimensional requirements for uniform dose delivery are determined through the feasibility testing. Feasibility testing allows the manufacturer to design the ideal production configuration, packaging, and master case layout. Each of these identified parameters for each of the ground beef products to be irradiated will allow for the proper penetration and compatible electron distribution and dose commitment.

Height or thickness of the ground beef in relation to how the electron beam is presented to the surface of the ground beefiness is the main dimensional requirement that determines a compatible dose delivery. The "height" of the footing beef is the ground beef'south overall height excluding packaging material and airspace. The height of the basis beef affects the electron distribution. The bulk density, axle penetration, and electron distribution in the ground beefiness remain abiding, whether in the fresh or frozen land. Typically, the overall height is between three.five and 3.7 inches, which allows for a uniform electron dose distribution using a dual electron axle irradiation arrangement. Certain factors volition impact the overall pinnacle at which ground beefiness can be properly irradiated. Chubs, or the cylindrical tubes of basis beef, and ground beef patties, which are scored to allow quicker uniform cooking of the patty, are a couple of examples that will impact dose distributions.

When ground beefiness height increases and the thickness exceeds the limit for uniform deposition of electrons, the max:min ratio increases. The max:min ratio will place the maximum thickness at which the basis beef tin can receive a uniform dose delivery and be properly irradiated. Eventually, as footing beef thickness increases, it will exceed the allowable thickness limit. When the commanded thickness limit is exceeded, the beam will not penetrate to the center of the ground beef, resulting in a minimal dose of electrons being distributed to the center of the ground beef (Fig. 14.one).

Figure 14.1. Dual beam max:min ratio dose uniformity unacceptable: ground beef thickness/height is too tall or thick (depression or no dose is in the center of the product).

When ground beefiness thickness is lessened or thinned, the beam penetration and electron distribution volition overlap. The overlap of the electrons results in an increased dose in the middle of the footing beef and the max:min ratio increases. The max:min ratio will identify the minimum thickness at which the ground beef can receive a compatible dose delivery and be properly irradiated. Eventually, as thickness decreases, information technology will allow additional packages of ground beefiness to be stacked until the thickness achieves a thickness for uniform dose delivery and a reasonable max:min ratio. When the allowable thickness limit is too thin or minimized, the electrons will abundantly penetrate to the eye of the basis beef resulting in a college than desired dose being delivered to the eye of the product (Fig. 14.2).

Figure 14.2. Dual beam max:min ratio dose uniformity unacceptable: ground beef thickness/ acme is as well thin or short (high dose is in the heart of the product).

Determining if the total overall height of the ground beefiness must be increased or decreased is dependent on the dose point measurement within the ground beef that receives the least or minimum dose during the irradiation treatment. When the minimum dose point is in the center of the ground beefiness and maximum dose point is nearly to or on the surface of the ground beef, the product's summit must exist decreased. When the minimum dose point is near or on the surface of the ground beefiness and the maximum dose point is in the eye the product's height must be increased.

The platonic height or thickness is established when the irradiation dose is uniformly distributed throughout the ground beefiness. The optimal product height or thickness for irradiation is identified when the measured absorbed dose applied to the top and bottom surfaces and the midpoint at the center of the basis beef are all equal (Fig. fourteen.3).

Effigy 14.3. Dual beam max:min ratio dose uniformity acceptable: ground beef thickness/height is ideal (dose is uniformly distributed and volition be properly applied throughout the product).

Basis beefiness with overall thickness as well thin for compatible dose commitment simply is too thick when the packages are double stacked for uniform dose delivery, can be irradiated using attenuation. Attenuation is the utilise of an absorption fixture placed between the ground beef and linear accelerator applying the electron beam, to absorb a specified amount of electrons beingness practical to the product.

The thickness of the attenuation required to adsorb the electrons for uniform dose delivery in ground beefiness that is packaged too sparse is a product of the density of the attenuation fixture cloth used, the density of the ground beefiness, and its overall thickness. Attenuation acts as a replacement or a filler for the ground beefiness to go to the required density needed to accomplish a uniform dose delivery and tight max:min ratio.

While the use of attenuation is an culling to achieving uniform dose delivery, its use volition reduce the irradiation processing efficiency. eBeam irradiation efficiency is reduced as a outcome of the electrons existence deposited in the attenuation device instead of existence delivered into the basis beef to reduce foodborne pathogens and adulterants. Consideration should exist given in identifying and designing the height of the ground beef and packaging configuration to achieve a uniform dose commitment.

Feasibility testing volition also help the manufacturer in the development, engineering, and designing of each individual stack of ground beef patties, individual package of ground beef, and master case layout of stacks of beefiness patties or individual packages. Private package and master case design is the second most disquisitional pace in the engineering and feasibility testing procedure.

The purpose of identifying the ideal thickness of each footing beefiness product is to achieve a compatible dose delivery throughout the product with a fairly tight targeted max:min ratio. The targeted max:min ratio range for the all-time basis beef organoleptic values and footing beef performance is typically 1.35–i.45   max:min when ground beef is packaged at the platonic height or thickness.

While information technology is important to maintain a tight max:min ratio for both quality attributes and processing efficiencies, the manufacturer may determine during the feasibility testing phase whether some other max:min ratio is suitable for irradiating the ground beefiness. The max:min ratio is based on the manufacturer's desired end results for ground beef's safe and acceptability. The manufacturer's criteria for the ground beefiness include the evaluation and results for reduction of foodborne pathogens and adulterants, organoleptic properties and production functioning. The footing beef'due south max:min ratio is driven by the height or thickness of the basis beef to exist irradiated. Identifying the proper height or thickness will yield the tightest or best max:min ratio for irradiating the ground beef. The irradiation dose uniformity delivered throughout the ground beef is measured and calculated by dosimetry.

Dosimeters are used to measure the dose of ionizing radiation to which the ground beef has been exposed. There are 2 types of dosimeters: alanine in the form of pellets or films, and radiochromic dye films. Alanine pellets and alanine films are considered the "Gold Standard" in dosimetry. They are placed at identified measurement points throughout the ground beef. The measurement points identify where the ground beef receives the lowest minimum dose and highest maximum dose of irradiation. Dividing the maximum dose by the minimum dose equates to the max:min ratio. If the calculated ratio allows the ground beef to be irradiated within the client's established minimum to maximum dose range, then product configuration is established. If the calculated ratio does non allow the ground beefiness to exist irradiated within the customer'due south established minimum to maximum dose range, additional product engineering is required.

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Fresh and cured meat processing and preservation

Steven M. Lonergan , ... Dennis N. Marple , in The Science of Animal Growth and Meat Technology (2d Edition), 2019

Ground Beefiness

Ground beefiness is a major market for beef in the U.s.a.. More than than i half of the beef sold in the Us is in the grade of ground beef. It has a large market share in fast-food restaurants, traditional restaurants, institutions, and in United states homes. The terms ground beef and chopped beefiness are considered to have the aforementioned meaning. Ground beefiness is prepared past the utilize of mechanical, loftier-speed grinding and/or chopping of boneless beef cuts and trimmings. The manufacture of basis beef products is regulated past the U.s.a. Section of Agronomics—Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA-FSIS) codes in which limerick and labeling regulations of ground beef products are spelled out in detail. These regulations specify that ground beef must be made from fresh and/or frozen beef, with or without seasoning, and without the addition of fat, and is express to thirty% fat. Many ground beef products are much leaner (eastward.thousand., 90% lean, ten% fat, and they must exist labeled as such). Furthermore, the regulations state that ground beefiness may non comprise added water, extenders, or binders and not exceed 25% cheek meat (the masseter muscles of the head). Footing beef made from the round or footing beef made from the chuck must be listed on the parcel label to announce the cut or role used for making that specific product. Hamburger is a popular term used for ground beef, and the USDA definition for hamburger is only slightly different from that for ground beefiness. Based on its legal definition, hamburger tin accept added beef fat. Interestingly, hamburger has nix to do with the pork carcass wholesale cutting, ham.

A product labeled "beef patties" is dissimilar from basis beefiness in that beefiness patties can contain binders and extenders and may or may not have added water. The word patty is commonly used to draw footing beef products. Depression-fat beef patties are those products combining meat and other nonmeat ingredients for the production of depression-fatty meat products. These products must be labeled every bit low fatty, fat reduced, and/or containing nonmeat ingredients. In addition to being used in patties, it is also used in the manufacture of foods such as pizza, spaghetti, tacos, and burritos, and often it is frozen for utilise in ready to heat and serve dishes such as casseroles. A large corporeality of patty manufacturing takes place by using a continuous system of grinding, blending, forming, freezing, and packaging. Big beef-patty processing plants have equipment capable of producing 10,000 pounds per hour. Fatty content is monitored online by rapid analytical methods like infrared (Fig. 13.1). Immediate and constant analysis is essential in producing the desired blends of lean and fat to meet company specifications and making necessary blend adjustments. Special meat grinder plates are available to greatly reduce or eliminate whatever os particles that have been part of the beef trimmings (Fig. 13.2). Utilize of rapid cryogenic freezing substances such every bit liquid nitrogen (−   80°F) has go more common because of its benign effects on decreasing cooking loss and improving the flavor of the ground beef products. Later rapid freezing, the packaged ground beef product is placed in freezers for storage for subsequent shipment to retail stores, restaurants, and institutions.

Fig. 13.1

Fig. 13.i. An example of a rapid analytical method to decide the fat, wet, and poly peptide percentages of basis beef using an infrared unit.

 From: NDC Infrared Engineering science Inc., Irwindale, California.

Fig. 13.2

Fig. thirteen.2. Special meat grinder plates used to greatly reduce or eliminate bone particles in ground beef products.

 Courtesy, Iowa Land University Meat Science Laboratory.

Precooking patties at the wholesale level is becoming increasingly more than popular because of the demand for rapid meal preparation and service, especially in the fast-food industry. Usually, the 3 stages of precooking doneness are fully cooked, partially cooked, and char-marked. Also, ground lamb, pork, chicken, and turkey patties are manufactured for retail sale using the same techniques described for beef patties.

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Treatment of hamburgers and cooking practices

Daniel A. Unruh , ... Sara E. Gragg , in Nutrient Hygiene and Toxicology in Ready-to-Eat Foods, 2016

Storage

Upon purchase, ground beef should be refrigerated or frozen as soon as possible. This exercise both preserves freshness and, chiefly, slows the growth of whatever bacteria present in the beef. Fresh ground beef tin exist stored for 1–3 days at a temperature below 40°F (4.4°C), with an optimum temperature of 28°F (−ii.2°C). If vacuum packaged, fresh ground beefiness tin can be stored under these conditions for upward to 14 days, depending on the supplier. Frozen ground beef should be stored at, or below, 0°F (−17.viii°C) for up to 90 days ( Anonymous, 2014). If properly held under these atmospheric condition, frozen ground beef is considered safe indefinitely; notwithstanding, the quality will degrade throughout storage (USDA-FSIS, 2013a). Following cooking, footing beef can be refrigerated for 2–3 days below twoscore°F (4.4°C) and frozen upward to 90 days at 0°F (−17.eight°C) or beneath (Anonymous, 2014). If the footing beef is to be used shortly, information technology is appropriate to refrigerate or freeze it in the original packaging. If the product volition be stored in the freezer for extended periods of time it should exist wrapped in aluminum foil, heavy-duty plastic wrap, freezer paper, or plastic freezer bags prior to freezing (USDA-FSIS, 2013a).

Frozen ground beef can be thawed safely in the refrigerator and should be cooked or refrozen inside 1–two days (Bearding, 2014; USDA-FSIS, 2013a). It is also appropriate to utilise a microwave oven to defrost frozen footing beef; all the same, the ground beefiness should be cooked immediately, as portions of the production may have begun to melt while defrosting. Submerging frozen ground beef in cold water can also be a safe defrosting method, if the meat is placed in a waterproof plastic handbag and the water is replaced every 30   min. Ground beefiness thawed in this manner should be cooked immediately. Ground beefiness defrosted in the microwave oven or submerged in cold h2o should never be refrozen, unless information technology has been cooked prior to freezing (USDA-FSIS, 2013a).

Post-obit storage and thawing guidelines is important for ensuring quality as well as safety of basis beef products. Both spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms may be present in ground beef and tin can apace multiply between xl°F and 140°F (4.4°C and lx°C), which is known every bit the temperature "danger zone." Growth of spoilage microorganisms can dethrone product quality, while pathogenic microbial growth poses a risk of foodborne illness (USDA-FSIS, 2013a). Earlier cooking, consumers may notice ground beefiness packaging containing a blood-like liquid remaining subsequently taking the meat out. This liquid is known as "purge" and is a consequence of cellular breakage and moisture loss from the footing beef. It is completely normal and oft becomes more pronounced as temperature increases or the longer the product sits in the bundle (USDA-FSIS, 2011).

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CANDIDA | Yarrowia lipolytica (Candida lipolytica)

J.B. Sutherland , ... S.A. CrowJr., in Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (Second Edition), 2014

Isolation from Meat Products

Poultry, basis beef, ground lamb, sausage and other dry-cured meat products, crabs, mussels, and several types of fish frequently contain Y. lipolytica (Table ane). Fifty-fifty meat products in cold storage may harbor slow-growing cultures of Y. lipolytica.

Table 1. Foods that oft incorporate Y. lipolytica

Beef (basis)
Butter
Cheese
Chicken
Crab
Foam
Fermented milk products (amasi, kumis, etc.)
Ham
Kefir (or kefyr)
Lamb (ground)
Margarine
Milk (cow, ewe, caprine animal, and mare)
Mussels
Sausage
Seafood
Turkey
Yogurt

In refrigerated chickens and turkeys, 39% of the yeast isolates consist of strains of Y. lipolytica that are able to grow at v °C. Comparable numbers tin can be found in fresh, frozen, smoked, and roasted chickens and turkeys.

In dry-cured ham and sausages, Y. lipolytica is typically abundant. Although cultures may exist obtained from raw ham, high numbers found in cured ham often are associated with spoilage. Yarrowia lipolytica tolerates the sulfur dioxide that often is added to unfermented sausages and besides is found in many types of fermented sausage. Yarrowia lipolytica sometimes is combined with the yeast Debaryomyces hansenii and the lactic acid bacterium Lactobacillus plantarum in starter cultures for pork sausages because its lipases produce complimentary fatty acids and other volatile compounds that add season to the product. It also has proteases that cause an increase in low-molecular weight peptides. In some but not all countries, the polyene antibiotic natamycin (pimaricin) is permitted to be used on sausages as a surface preservative, where it acts as an inhibitor of Y. lipolytica.

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MEAT | Eating Quality

I. Lebert , ... R. Talon , in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (2d Edition), 2003

Other pathogenic leaner causing sporadic cases

Undercooked or raw basis beefiness has been implicated in nearly all documented outbreaks of Due east. coli O157:H7 and in other sporadic cases. E. coli is a normal inhabitant of the intestine of all animals, including humans. Currently, there are four recognized classes of enterovirulent Due east. coli that crusade gastroenteritis in humans. The enterohemorrhagic strain, designated E. coli serotype O157:H7, is a rare variety of E. coli that produces large quantities of one or ii toxins that cause astringent damage to the lining of the intestine. These toxins are closely related to the toxin produced by Shigella dysenteriae.

C. jejuni often contaminates raw chicken. Surveys show that 20–100% of retail chickens are contaminated. This is not entirely surprising, since many healthy chickens have these bacteria in their abdominal tracts. Raw milk is too a source of infections. The leaner are often carried by healthy cattle and by flies on farms. However, properly cooking chicken or pasteurizing milk kills the bacteria. Campylobacters can be isolated from freshly slaughtered red-meat carcasses, but in smaller numbers than on poultry. This bacterium is recognized as an of import enteric pathogen. Recent surveys have shown that C. jejuni is the leading cause of bacterial diarrhea in the USA, causing more illness than Shigella spp. and Salmonella spp. combined.

Fifty. monocytogenes has been associated with foods such as raw milk, cheeses (peculiarly soft-ripened varieties), raw vegetables, but also fermented raw-meat sausages, raw and cooked poultry, all types of raw meats, and raw and smoked fish. Its ability to grow at temperatures as depression every bit 3   °C permits multiplication in refrigerated foods. The contamination of meat and meat products tin can be due to fecal contamination during slaughter, presence on clean and unclean sections in slaughterhouses, and contaminated footing and processed meats: 10–80% of contaminated samples contain less than 10–100   CFU   g−i. L. monocytogenes is a ubiquitous bacteria found in soil, silage, and other environmental sources, and is present in the intestines of 1–10% of humans. L. monocytogenes is quite hardy and resists the deleterious furnishings of freezing, drying, and heat.

Y. enterocolitica has been recovered from a wide variety of animals, foods, and water. Pigs seem to be the principal reservoir of bioserotypes pathogenic to humans, simply the exact cause of the nutrient contamination is unknown.

Aeromonas spp. are ubiquitous and are likewise associated with foods of animal origin (raw meats, poultry, and milk). A. hydrophila grows rapidly in a refrigerated surroundings and can increase its number 10–grand-fold in meat and fish samples over 1 week of refrigerated storage.

Among several environments (Table four), the home is where the pathogens are oftentimes identified (thirteen%), with 46% of the outbreaks occurring in people eating at home largely due to mishandling of food products (Table 4). The consumer must take care when handling food at habitation, and recommendations accept been given past The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods to prevent the contamination of food products by foodborne pathogens (Table 5).

Tabular array 4. Results of foodborne disease surveillance

Identify of contamination or mishandling Identified outbreaks when people eat food products Factors contributing to outbreaks
Entering the food chain at the subcontract (50%) Homes (46%) Temperature corruption, inadequate cooling, and improper cooking (44%)
Restaurants/hotels (15%)
Mishandling Catered events (8%) Contaminated or toxic raw products (16%)
  Restaurants (22%) Medical-care facilities (half-dozen%) Contamination by personnel or equipment (15%)
  Homes (13%) Canteens (vi%) Lack of hygiene in processing, preparing, and treatment (10%)
  Catering establishments (7%) Schools (v%) Cantankerous-contamination (4%)

Tabular array v. Recommendations of rubber food grooming

Wash hands and utensils earlier handling nutrient, particularly after handling raw foods
Reheat all foods thoroughly (above an internal temperature of 74   °C)
Keep hot nutrient hot (above 63   °C)
Continue cold foods common cold (below four   °C)
Thoroughly cook meat, poultry, and seafood, and adequately estrus frozen or refrigerated foods
Arctic foods rapidly in shallow containers
Keep raw and cooked foods separate, especially when shopping, preparing, cooking, and storing these products
Wrap and comprehend foods in the refrigerator
Keep the refrigerator temperature between ane and 4   °C

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On-line monitoring of meat quality

H.J. Swatland , in Meat Processing, 2002

10.8.ii In meat processing

Connective tissue levels in basis beef may exist a problem if also many meat scraps with a high content of tendon are worked into a product. The outcome may be a gritty texture for hamburger, or excessive gelatin formation in a cooked product. Elastin derived from elastic ligaments has virtually the aforementioned fluorescence emission spectrum as Blazon I collagen from tendon and ligaments. This enables fluorescence emission ratios to exist used to predict total connective tissue levels.

Under experimental weather, collagen fluorescence in comminuted mixtures of craven skin and musculus may be measured through a quartz-glass rod with a window onto the product (Swatland and Barbut, 1991). High proportions of peel decrease the gel strength of the cooked product (r =– 0.99), causing high cooking losses (r = 0.99) and decreased WHC (r =– 0.92). Fluorescence intensity may exist strongly correlated with skin content (r > 0.99 from 460 to 510 nm) and, thus, may exist strongly correlated with gel strength, cooking losses and fluid-belongings capacity (Fig. 10.5). Correlations would be weaker in a applied awarding, merely notwithstanding acceptable for feed-dorsum control of product composition.

Fig. 10.v. Spectral distribution of the t-statistic for the correlation of fluorescence emission with skin content (line), gel strength (solid squares) and cooking losses (empty squares) in mixtures of chicken breast meat and pare.

One of the issues in scale is pseudofluorescence - reflectance of the upper edge of the excitation ring-laissez passer. This occurs because excitation and emission maxima are fairly close, and the filters and dichroic mirrors used to separate excitation from emission are not perfect. Thus, the standard used to calibrate the apparatus for the measurement of relative fluorescence should have a similar reflectance to meat. Clean aluminium foil with a dull surface is a adequately close match to meat.

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Take chances Assessment of Irradiated Foods

Ioannis Southward. Arvanitoyannis , Nikoletta G. Dionisopoulou , in Irradiation of Food Commodities, 2010

Beef

Research was performed to extend ground beef retail display life using antioxidants, reductants, and/or full aerobic plate count (TSP) treatments combined with eastward-beam irradiation. Half of the treated samples were irradiated at ii.0 kGy absorbed dose under a nitrogen temper, and half remained non-irradiated. Samples were displayed under atmospheric oxygen and evaluated for TPC, thiobarbituric acrid reactive substances (TBARS), and instrumental color during ix days of simulated retail display (SRD). Treated irradiated samples were just as red and vivid on SRD Day nine as the non-irradiated untreated command at 24-hour interval 0 ( Duong et al., 2008).

Escherichia coli O157:H7 tin contaminate raw ground beefiness and cause serious human foodborne illness. Although lag phase duration decreased from x.5 to 45°C, no lag stage was observed at 6, 8, or 10°C. The specific growth rate increased from half-dozen to 42°C and then declined up to 45°C. In contrast to these profiles, the maximum population density declined with increasing temperature, from approximately 9.7 to eight.2 log CFU/g (Tamplin et al., 2005).

The inactivation kinetics in the expiry of Listeria innocua NTC 11288 (more radioresistant than five different strains of L. monocytogenes) and Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis and S. enterica serovar Typhimurium by e-beam irradiation has been studied in 2 types of vacuum-packed RTE dry fermented sausages ("salchichon" and "chorizo") in guild to optimize the sanitation handling of these products. Therefore, this handling produces safe, dry fermented sausages with similar sensory properties to the non-irradiated product (Cabeza et al., 2009).

Moist beefiness biltong (mean moisture content, 46.7%; a westward, 0.919) was vacuum packaged and irradiated to target doses of 0, 2, iv, 6, and 8 kGy. TBARS measurements and sensory difference and hedonic tests were performed to decide the effect of γ-irradiation on the sensory quality of the biltong. Although lean moist beef biltong can thus be irradiated to doses up to 8 kGy without adversely affecting the sensory acceptability, low-dose irradiation (64 kGy) is virtually viable to optimize the sensory quality (Nortjé et al., 2005).

E-axle and X-ray irradiation (2 kGy) inactivated Eastward. coli O157:H7 beneath the limit of detection, whereas hydrostatic pressure treatment (300 mPa for five min at four°C) did not inactivate this pathogen. Solid-stage microextraction was used to extract volatile compounds from treated footing beef patties. Irradiation and hydrostatic pressure level altered the volatile composition of the ground beef patties with respect to radiolytic products. However, results were inconclusive regarding whether these differences were great enough to apply this method to differentiate betwixt irradiated and non-irradiated samples in a commercial setting (Schilling et al., 2009).

The effect of γ-irradiation (four and 9 kGy) and packaging on the lipolytic and oxidative processes in lipid fraction of Bulgarian fermented salami during storage at five°C was evaluated (one, xv, and thirty days). No significant differences were observed in the amounts of full lipids, total phospholipids, and acid number inside the vacuum-packed samples of salami treated with 4 and 9 kGy during storage. The changes in TBARS depended mainly on the irradiation dose applied and did not exceed i.37 mg/kg in all groups (Bakalivanova et al., 2009).

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Reducing fats in processed meat products

Barbut S. , in Processed Meats, 2011

14.3 Consequences of reducing fat in processed meats from an organoleptic and functional perspective

As indicated earlier, a direct fat reduction in basis beef-type patties to x% or below, results in an inferior product. Reitmeier and Prusa (1987) also reported that every bit fat level was reduced, in pork patties from 23 to 4%, the product became less tender and juicy and had a lower oily mouth coating. Pork flavor was less pronounced in the iv% fat patties. As observed with the beef patties, fat reduction by itself will not likely produce a palatable low-fatty pork sausage. The authors suggested that additional ingredients be tried/used to enhance the eating quality of reduced fatty products.

In a comminuted-type sausage, Bishop et al. (1993) reported that replacing fat (15% of the 30%) with added water prevented the increase in firmness normally associated with depression fat bologna. Even so during storage, accumulated purge in vacuum packages increased with h2o content in the products, and also with the utilise of pre-emulsified oil. In terms of modifying processing methods, the authors also tried pre-emulsifying the fat or oil. They indicated that it helped to decrease the firmness of low fat bologna. The colour was darker for all the reduced fat bologna except the ane pre-emulsified with corn oil. Flavor and overall acceptability scores, from a consumer sensory console, did not differ among bologna samples, but juiciness scores were college in bologna containing additional h2o.

Huffman and Egbert (1990) reported that beef patties produced with approximately 20% fat were highest in overall acceptability over a fatty content ranging from 5 to 25%. When changing the particle size they noted that overall palatability of low fat ground beef was slightly improved by a concluding grind through a 0.48   cm (iii/16 inch) plate rather than the more common 0.32   cm (1/eight inch) plate.

Huffman and Egbert (1990) and Egbert et al. (1991) have also evaluated the use of a carrageenan gum, in a big-scale report, targeted to bring a new low fatty production to the market. They compared beef patties containing 20% fat with those with 8% fatty with or without 0.v% iota carrageenan, x% water, 0.4% encapsulated salt and 0.2% hydrolyzed vegetable proteins. Broiled carrageenan patties with 8% fat were rated more than tender by a sensory console and independent 16% more moisture, 58% less fat, xvi% (xiv   mg/100   g) less cholesterol and 37% (100   kcal/100   g) fewer calories than the 20% fatty command. Reducing the fat content to 8% without whatsoever additives resulted in patties that were less juicy, had lower season intensity, and greater shear strength values than either the twenty% command or 8% fat-carrageenan patties. Patties with 20% fat had the highest cooking losses but everyman shear force. Serving temperature also appeared to be more critical for low-fat patties than regular fat patties. The McDonald's Corporation adapted a depression fatty carrageenan formulation pretty similar to the ane described by Huffman and Egbert (1990) and introduced the McLean Delux™ hamburger in 1991. The product was on the market for several years simply then removed, probably due to depression sale volumes. It is interesting to note that in consumer surveys, well-nigh people would indicate that they would like to buy low fat hamburgers (e.g., when asked in focus groups), but when they enter a fast food eatery they would actually like to have a more juicy/full season hamburger. Since the 1991 introduction, there has been quite a lot of evolution washed in this area by various meat and/or ingredient companies and quality has dramatically improved, only the McLean has not been re-introduced. Overall, the application of any gum : h2o substitution combination (e.grand., h2o : carrageenan) must be carefully done, otherwise unexpected product changes can negatively affect acceptability. For example, when using carrageenan one must remember that information technology has a low melting point and information technology forms a reversible gel (melts at most 50   °C). This can crusade premature moisture loss and/or water-soluble flavors; fewer browning reaction products may develop during grilling/broiling, thus reducing meaty flavour (both only after cooking and more than so afterward holding under a fast-food service situation). This is on top of natural variations in carrageenan performance (e.g., the mucilage is extracted from seaweeds at different locations around the earth, refined by different processes, and is affected past the presence of mono- and divalent salts).

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FREEZING | Structural and Flavor (Flavour) Changes

C. James , Southward. James , in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (2d Edition), 2003

Freezing rate

The effect of variations in freezing rate on the tenderness of ground beef patties has been investigated using weather which accomplished freezing times to −18  °C of 24, 48, 72, and 97   h. In ane study, immediately after freezing, patties frozen in 24   h were less tough than those frozen in 96   h (Table 1). This divergence was all the same found after 6 months storage. After eighteen months, patties frozen in 48   h were tenderer than those frozen at faster or slower rates. Slight reductions in flavor and juiciness were besides found in patties frozen in 96   h. Taste panel and sensory scores for the tenderness of ground beefiness patties frozen in air at −43   °C were higher than for those frozen at −20   °C. Freezing rates were not detailed, and patties were stored for 2 weeks at −30   °C.

Table one. Effect of freezing rate on tenderness of basis-beef patties (ranging from one, extremely tough, to 8, extremely tender)

Storage time Freezing charge per unit (hours to −eighteen   °C)
24 48 72 96 SE
Just earlier freezing 6.i d 5.6 f v.8 east half-dozen.0 d 0.03
Simply later on freezing 5.1 d four.7 d,e 4.eight d, e 3.7 e 0.25
  6 months 4.nine d four.9 d 4.2 east 4.3 eastward 0.10
  xviii months iv.5 e,f 5.2 d 4.7 d,due east iv.one f 0.09

From Berry BW and Leddy KF (1989) Effects of freezing rate, frozen storage temperature and storage fourth dimension on tenderness values of beefiness patties. Journal of Food Science 54: 291–296.

a, b, c, d, e, f
The aforementioned letters indicate no statistical differences.

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CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MEAT | Color and Pigment

S.P. Suman , P. Joseph , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014

Premature Browning

Premature browning (PMB) is the phenomenon observed in cooked basis beef wherein myoglobin denaturation occurs at a temperature lower than that is required to destroy foodborne pathogens. Because the dull-brownish color of cooked beef is often considered every bit an indicator of doneness, PMB can lead to food safe concerns. The thermal denaturation temperatures are different for myoglobin redox forms, and therefore the incidence of PMB is influenced by the predominant redox form of myoglobin in beefiness before cooking. The resistance of myoglobin redox forms to thermal denaturation is in the gild: deoxymyoglobin>oxymyoglobin>metmyoglobin. Processing strategies that increment the proportion of oxymyoglobin and metmyoglobin in beef, such as oxygen-rich packaging (high-oxygen MAP and aerobic packaging), thawing frozen beef, and bulk packaging, increase the incidence of PMB. In these cases, meat pigments are exposed to oxidative conditions before cooking, causing accelerated paint denaturation during cooking. Nonetheless, antioxidants and vacuum packaging increase the relative proportion of deoxymyoglobin and thus minimize PMB. Basis beef packaged in CO MAP demonstrates a low incidence of PMB, presumably due to the increased resistance of carboxymyoglobin pigment to oxidative environments and/or due to the pinkish-blood-red denatured globin CO hemochrome resulting from the cooking of CO-treated beef.

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